3.  INDIAN  TRIBES  OF  THE  SOUTH  PASS  OF  THE  ROCKY 
MOUNTAINS;  THE  SALT  LAKE  BASIN;  THE  VALLEY 
OF  THE  GREAT  SAAPTIN,  OR  LEWIS'  RIVER,  AND  THE 
PACIFIC  COASTS  OF  OREGON. 

BY   NATHANIEL   J.   WYETH,   ESQ. 

SYNOPSIS.  Kl'\ 

LETTER  I.  —  Object  of  Inquiry. — Period  of  Residence. 

LETTER  II.  —  Question  of  Affinity  of  the  Shoshonees  by  Language.  —  Means  of  Subsistence. — 
True  Name  —  Bonacks. —  Scarcity  of  Game. —  Game  and  Trapping. — No  social  Organization 
among  the  Tribes.  —  Utter  Ignorance.  —  Introduction  of  the  Horse  an  Era.  —  No  Cultivation 
whatever. — No  Laws.  —  No  Ideas  of  Rights  of  Property.  —  Foot  Tribes  cannot  cope  with 
Tribes  possessing  Horses.  —  The  Horse,  therefore,  the  Cause  of  Division,  and  Tribal  Organi 
zation. 

LETTER  III.  —  Influence  of  the  Introduction  of  the  Horse  on  the  American  Tribes. 

LETTER  IV.  —  Geography  of  the  Saaptin  River.  —  Hydrographic  Power.  —  Salmon.  —  Hot 
Springs  abundant. — Fossil  Wood. — Blue  Limestone. — Reddish  Sandstone. — Bitumen. — Coal. 
—  Glauber,  Epsom,  and  Common  Salts.  —  Obsidian.  —  Very  dry  Atmosphere;  consequent 
danger  of  handling  Fire  Arms.  —  Extraordinary  range  of  the  Thermometer.  —  Grazing. — 
Scarcity  of  Fuel.  —  Wood  alone  on  the  Mountains. 

LETTER  V. — Implements  of  the  Shoshonees.  —  Root-Pot. — Bows  of  Horn  artistically  made. — 
Obsidian  Arrow-Heads ;  their  shape.  —  Obsidian  Knife.  —  Graining  Tools.  —  Bone  Awls.  — 
Fish  Spears. — Fish  Nets. — Boats  or  Rafts. — Pipes  of  Fuller's  Earth  and  Soapstone. — 
Mats  resembling  the  Chinese.  —  Implement  for  obtaining  Fire  by  Percussion. 

LETTER  VI. — Transmitting  Remarks  on  the  Snake  River  Valley,  &c. 

LETTER  VII. —  Language  of  the  Shoshonees. —  Destitution;  eat  pounded  Bones. —  Mildness,  and 
unaccountable  want  of  Moral  Sense  or  Accountability. —  Murder  of  Abbot  and  De  Forest. — 
Submissive  under  Discipline. — Origin  at  different  Eras  and  from  different  Parts. — Resemblance 
to  Japanese. 

LETTER  VIII. —  Reason  for  not  beginning  Geographically. — Breadth  of  the  Inquiry. — A  few  more 
Shoshonee  Words. 

LETTER  IX. — Valley  of  the  Colorado:  its  waste  Character  immediately  South  of  the  Salt  Lake 
Basin  —  lying  in  a  Fissure  of  Basaltic  Rock  —  then  barren  Sands. —  South  of  Snake  River, 
Lignite,  Gypsum,  Marine  Shells. —  Coal  in  North  Latitude  40°  30'  to  40°  40'. —  Geographical 
Data  favorable  to  Settlements  in  the  Mountain  Basin. —  Grand  River  Valley  favorable  to 
grazing,  &c. 

LETTER  X.  —  Transmitting  Accounts  of  the  Bear  River  Valley,  Utah,  and  the  Valley  between 
the  Blue  and  Cascade  Mountains,  Oregon. 

(204) 


TRIBAL   ORGANIZATION,   ETC.  205 

LETTER  XI. — Value  of  the  Bear  River  Valley  on  the  Plateau  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  as  the 
connecting  link  between  the  Platte  and  Lewis  Rivers. — Country  between  the  Blue  and  Cascade 
Mountains,  Oregon. — Game,  Forest  Trees. —  Country  volcanic. — Conglomerate  Rocks,  Pumice 
Stones. — Columnar  Basalt  in  chasms. — Two  ancient  Bones  converted  to  silex,  underlying  several 
hundred  feet  of  Basaltic  Rock. — Other  important  geological  facts. — Climate. — Barren  tracts  on 
the  Columbia. —  Immense  number  of  Horses  raised  and  owned  by  the  Indians,  in  this 
prominently  pastoral  Valley. — Agricultural  advantages  less,  but  still  appreciable. —  Health. 
—  Infection  between  1829  and  1836,  carried  off  the  Natives. 

LETTER  XII. — Transmitting  Remarks  on  the  Route  to  Oregon  and  the  improvement  of  the  Indians. 

LETTER  XIII. —  Future  Prospects  of  the  Indians  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. —  Principles  on 
which  their  Pacification,  internal  and  external,  must  depend. — Country  resembles  the  Interior 
of  Asia,  and  its  Tribes  have  no  actual  ownership  of  the  Soil,  but  rove  over  it  to  hunt,  steal, 
and  murder. —  Shoshonees  its  rightful  occupants  to  the  Blue  Mountains :  then  Cayuses  and 
Walla-Wallas. — All  mere  Nomades. — Plan  for  a  line  of  Posts  and  pastoral  Settlements  from 
the  Platte  to  the  Columbia  River  at  the  Dalles. — These  Settlements  to  consist  of  Herdsmen, 
Red  or  White. 

LETTER  XIV. —  Indian  Names. —  Reasons  for  them. —  The  want  of  Vocabularies,  &c. 

LETTER  XV. —  Statistics  of  the  Snakes,  Bonacks,  and  Shoshonees. —  Causes  of  the  Increase  and 
Decrease,  or  stationary  Population,  of  Indian  Nations. — Periods  of  War  and  Hunting  counter 
poising  each  other. — Destruction  of  Game,  a  consequence  of  the  egress  of  civilized  Nations. — 
The  want  of  success  in  attempts  to  reclaim  Savage  Tribes  adverted  to. — The  plan  of  making 
them  Herdsmen  enforced  in  relation  to  these  Tribes.  —  Their  Decrease  had  commenced,  inde 
pendently  of  the  effects  of  Alcoholic  Liquors. — None  actually  used  in  their  Trade,  prior  to  1837. 

LETTER  I. 

Cambridge,  Mass. 

March  27,  1848. 
SIR: 

Your  letter  of  21st  February  ult.  was  received  while  I  was  wholly  occupied 
by  the  operations  of  business.  I  beg  you  will  accept  this  as  an  apology  for  so  late 
an  answer. 

I  observe  that  the  information  to  be  elicited  was  to  have  been  used  by  the  1st 
February  or  during  the  present  session  of  Congress  —  can  it  still  be  useful?  if  so,  I 
will  furnish  a  few  remarks  in  answer,  premising  that  I  commenced  the  Indian  trade 
in  1832,  and  left  it  in  1836,  that  my  travels  were  from  40°  to  49°  north,  and  from  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific,  having  my  chief  establishments  at  Fort  Hall  and 
Wapato  Island,  and  that  it  will  take  some  little  time  to  collect  the  facts  from  the 
original  memorandums. 

Very  respectfully, 

Your  Obedient  Servant, 

NATHANIEL  J.  WYETH. 
HENRY  R.  SCHOOLCRAFT,  ESQ., 

Office  Indian  Affairs. 


206  TRIBAL  ORGANIZATION, 

LETTER  II. 

April  3d,  1848. 

SIR: 

I  have  received  your  ethnological  questions,  accompanied  by  your  letter  of 
the  21st  of  February  last.  Circumstances  have  prevented  my  attention  to  the  subject 
until  this  time. 

In  imparting  what  little  I  know,  I  shall  follow  the  order  in  which  the  questions  are 
proposed;  omitting  those  on  which  my  information  is  deficient.  No.  13,  "Causes  of 
the  Multiplication  of  Tribes." 

In  my  intercourse  with  the  bands  of  Snake  Indians  at  Fort  Hall,  which  I  built  in 
1834,  and  while  endeavoring  to  communicate  with  them  for  the  purposes  of  trade,  my 
attention  was  struck  by  the  diversity  of  dialect ;  not  great  enough  to  lead  to  the 
supposition  of  a  very  ancient  separation,  and  yet  too  great  to  exist  between  tribes 
inhabiting  the  same  region.  The  very  limited  inquiries  that  I  was  able  to  make,  led 
to  the  belief  that  the  tribes  or  bands  of  Snakes  recognised  a  less  difference  between 
each  other,  than  between  themselves  and  the  Blackfeet  and  Crows,  with  whom  they 
are  always  at  war. 

During  these  years,  the  few  whites  then  in  that  region  called  the  more  miserable 
bands  Diggers,  or  Shoshonees.  They  differ  from  the  other  Snakes  somewhat  in 
language ;  their  condition  is  much  poorer,  having  no  horses,  and  living  chiefly  on  roots 
and  fish  from  the  brooks,  with  what  small  game  that  region  affords.  I  am  not  quite 
certain,  but  think  their  distinctive  name  among  the  natives  is  SOHOSHONEE  ;  another 
division  of  the  Snakes  are  called  by  .themselves  and  others,  Bonacks,  or  Paunaques. 
They  do  not  seem,  radically,  to  differ  from  the  former ;  they  are  more  intelligent,  and 
better  supplied  with  all  the  means  of  Indian  independence;  horses,  lodges,  guns, 
knives,  &c.  &c.,  and  form  bands  annually  to  hunt  in  the  buffalo  country. 

The  region  which  both  these  descriptions  of  Snakes  inhabit,  extends  south  from  the 
Saaptin  or  Snake  Elver,  as  far  as  the  southern  end  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  from 
the  Rocky  to  the  Blue  Mountains,  and  is  nearly  a  desert ;  although  there  are  a  few 
spots  of  good  soil,  it  produces  the  least  possible  quantity  of  game.  There  are  no 
buffaloes ;  elk  and  deer  are  very  scarce  and  unknown,  except  in  the  mountains.  Ante 
lope  and  big-horn  are  rare,  as  also  the  bear ;  there  are  two  kinds  of  rabbits,  but  they 
are  also  scarce.  In  1832,  when  I  first  visited  this  country,  perhaps  the  beaver  and 
otter  exceeded  all  the  other  game,  and  they  were  by  no  means  abundant ;  at  that 
time  the  Indians  had  no  traps,  and  therefore  could  obtain  little  food  from  the  beaver. 
All  the  skins  of  animals  killed  were  used  as  clothing,  even  the  beaver  and  otter,  and 
furnished  so  little,  that  perhaps  not  more  than  one-half  of  their  bodies  were  covered, 
even  during  the  winter,  and  but  few  even  of  those  who  visited  annually  the  buffalo 
region  had  skins  enough  to  erect  lodges. 


HISTORY,   AND   GOVERNMENT.  207 

The  paucity  of  game  in  this  region  is,  I  have  little  doubt,  the  cause  of  the  almost 
entire  absence  of  social  organization  among  its  inhabitants;  no  trace  of  it  is  ordinarily 
seen  among  them,  except  during  salmon-time,  when  a  large  number  of  the  Snakes  resort 
to  the  rivers,  chiefly  to  the  Fishing  Falls,  and  at  such  places  there  seems  some  little 
organization ;  some  person  called  a  chief  usually  opens  a  trade  or  talk,  and  occasion 
ally  gives  directions  as  to  times  and  modes  of  fishing ;  and  the  same  is  the  case  with 
the  bands  who  go  into  the  buffalo  region.  Other  than  this,  I  have  perceived  no  ves 
tiges  of  government  among  them ;  I  have  never  known  other  punishment  inflicted 
than  personal  satisfaction  by  murder  or  theft. 

At  the  time  I  allude  to,  our  means  of  communicating  with  them  were  very  imperfect, 
and  mistakes  of  their  meaning  might  occur.  Their  first  answer  to  the  question  of 
"What  is  the  difference  between  the  Bonacks  and  Shoshonees?"  if  addressed  to  one 
separate  from  the  other,  was,  that  they  were  good  and  the  other  bad,  meaning  that 
they  would  trade  beaver  with  the  Whites,  while  the  other  would  steal  from  and 
murder  them.  When,  they  were  addressed  together  they  did  not,  generally,  implicate 
each  other,  but  in  all  cases  it  was  difficult  for  them  to  conceive  that  we  were  searching 
for  the  distinctive  difference  between  themselves ;  and,  after  making  this  understood, 
I  could  never  obtain  any  further  information  than  that  the  Bonacks  had  horses,  and 
went  to  hunt  buffalo,  while  the  Shoshonees  had  no  horses,  and  lived  on  roots  and 
fish. 

In  examining  the  cause  of  separation  into  tribes  of  a  people  so  little  removed  from 
the  lowest  state  of  existence,  we  should  examine  the  original  necessities  which  must 
have  produced  all  social  organization.  The  collection  of  a  family,  which  may  be  con 
sidered  coeval  with  individual  existence,  is  of  no  importance  in  this  instance.  The 
combination  for  the  defence  of  person  and  property  is  the  point  to  be  examined  in  this 
case,  and  beyond  this  stage  the  Snakes  have  not  reached. 

Previous  to  the  introduction  of  the  Horse  among  them,  they  could  have  had  no 
interest  of  property  requiring  organization  to  protect  it,  except  that  of  the  Salmon 
fisheries,  which  must  have  been  nearly  coeval  with  their  first  settlement  in  the  country, 
and  which,  naturally,  would  call  for  some  kind  of  law  to  render  it  available.  That 
this  was  their  only  motive  to  institute  government,  I  infer  from  the  nature  of  their 
country,  which  is  too  poor  to  produce  any  considerable  quantity  of  game,  and  that  no 
cultivation  had  ever  been  attempted.  It  is  not  probable  they  would  have  combined 
to  protect  property  they  did  not  possess,  or  to  secure  themselves  against  enemies  who 
could  not  penetrate  into  their  country  for  want  of  subsistence,  and  also  because  them 
selves  could  not  remain  together  in  any  considerable  numbers  from  the  same  cause. 

These  reasons  show  a  want  of  motive  and  power  of  combination,  except  in  the 
single  interest  of  the  Salmon  fishery,  and  convince  me  that  prior  to  the  introduction 
of  the  horse  no  other  tribal  arrangement  existed  than  such  as  is  now  seen  in  thrs 
management  of  the  Salmon  fishery. 


208  TRIBAL    ORGANIZATION, 

Since  the  introduction  of  horses,  the  Snakes  have  probably  been  in  the  progress  of 
separating  into  two  tribes,  those  who  had  most  intelligence  would  obtain  them  first, 
by  the  mode  of  all  Indian  acquisition,  stealing,  gambling,  and  trading. 

It  is  a  well-established  fact  that  men  on  foot  cannot  live,  even  in  the  best  game 
countries,  in  the  same  camp  with  those  who  have  horses.  The  latter  reach  the  game, 
secure  what  they  want,  and  drive  it  beyond  the  reach  of  the  former.  Thus  the  Snakes, 
while  they  had  no  horses,  would  form  but  one  people,  because  they  would  be  collected 
once  a  year,  in  Salmon  time ;  but  the  organization  would  be  very  imperfect,  because 
the  remainder  of  the  year  would  be  spent  by  them  in  families  widely  spread  apart, 
to  eke  out  the  year's  subsistence  on  the  roots  and  limited  game  of  their  country. 

After  a  portion  of  them,  who  are  now  called  Bonacks,  had  obtained  horses,  they 
would  naturally  form  bands  and  resort  to  the  Buffalo  region  to  gain  their  subsistence, 
retiring  to  the  most  fertile  places  in  their  own,  to  avoid  the  snows  of  the  mountains 
and  feed  their  horses.  Having  food  from  the  proceeds  of  the  Buffalo  hunt,  to  enable 
them  to  live  together,  they  would  annually  do  so,  for  the  protection  of  their  horses, 
lodges,  &c.,  &c.  These  interests  have  caused  an  organization  among  the  Bonacks, 
which  continues  the  year  through,  because  the  interests  which  produce  it  continue ; 
and  it  is  more  advanced  than  that  of  the  other  Snakes. 

LETTER  III. 

April  6th,  1848. 
SIR: 

The  few  observations  on  the  "  multiplication  of  tribes,"  accompanying  this, 
are  not  satisfactory  to  myself,  and  if  not  so  to  you,  please  throw  them  aside. 

I  regret  not  being  able  to  supply  more  facts  to  support  a  view,  very  strongly 
impressed  on  my  mind,  that  the  condition  of  the  Indians  of  this  continent  has  been 
much  influenced  by  the  introduction  of  the  Horse. 

I  shall  notice  the  other  questions,  and,  with  your  leave,  communicate  such  views 
and  facts  as  I  may  possess  in  regard  to  any  of  them. 

LETTER  IV. 

April  18th,  1848. 

SIR: 

These  remarks  relate  to  the  geography,  &c.,  of  the  Snake  country,  which  is 
drained  by  the  Saaptin  or  Snake  River. 

This  country,  with  small  exceptions,  is  volcanic.  The  action  of  fire  is  extensively 
perceptible.  Columns  of  basalt  generally  form  the  barriers  of  the  streams. 

The  streams  almost  invariably  diminish  toward  their  outlets,  and  many  of  them 
discharge  no  water,  except  at  high  flood,  and  some  of  them  sink  in  the  rocks  and 
sands  at  all  seasons,  between  Henry's  fork  and  the  River  Malad,  a  distance  of  about 
150  miles.  On  the  north  side  of  Snake  River,  all  the  streams  are  lost  in  this  manner. 


HISTORY,   AND   GOVERNMENT.  209 

although  the  streams  issuing  from  the  contiguous  mountains  are  as  abundant  and 
large  as  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  same  range.  The  streams  of  this  region  are  unfit 
for  navigation  of  any  kind,  with  the  exception  of  the  Main  Snake  and  Salmon  Rivers, 
both  of  which  afford  the  worst  kind  of  canoe  navigation,  rapids  being  frequent,  and 
portages  necessary  at  different  places,  according  to  the  stage  of  the  water. 

All  the  streams  of  any  considerable  magnitude  afford  abundance  of  mill-power.  At 
a  place  about  70  miles  from  the  mouth  of  Bruneau  a  jet  of  hot  water  issuing  from  the 
basaltic  rock,  about  40  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  stream,  is  sufficient  to  carry  the 
largest  mills,  and  many  jets  of  hot  or  cold  water,  at  different  heights  above  the  stream, 
are  thrown  into  Snake  River  between  Malad  and  Henry's  Fork. 

Salmon  ascend  the  main  river  to  the  Fishing  Valley,  and  by  Salmon  River  nearly  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  by  the  other  lateral  branches  to  their  sources. 

The  rivers  of  this  country,  which  come  from  the  South  and  West,  rise  in  April  and 
May,  and  those  of  the  North  and  East,  in  June  and  July.  From  August  to  April  the 
waters  are  low  in  the  main  river.  I  have  forded  Snake  River  at  the  mouth  of  Big 
Wood  in  August,  1834,  and  in  December,  1835,  without  wetting  packs.  The  streams 
are  divided  on  the  East  and  North  from  the  Rocky  Mountains,  on  the  North-west  from 
the  dividing  mountains  between  them  and  the  Flathead  River,  on  the  West  from  the 
Blue  Mountains,  on  the  South  from  a  range  which  divides  them  from  the  waters  of 
the  Valley  of  the  Salt  Lake.  Hot  springs  are  common  all  over  this  region,  but  there 
are  no  lakes  or  ponds. 

I  have  observed  fossil-wood  on  the  Oyhee,  which  discharges  into  Snake  River  nearly 
opposite  the  Big  Wood.  On  the  heads  of  Goding  Fork,  which  loses  itself  in  the  plain 
of  the  Three  Butes ;  in  Pierre's  Hole,  at  the  base  of  the  Three  Titons,  about  thirty 
miles  up  the  Brule ;  and  on  the  heads  of  Salmon  River,  I  have  observed  blue  lime 
stone  and  reddish  sandstone,  but  have  not  observed  the  remains  of  shells  in  either. 
On  Bruneau  I  found  asphaltum  in  a  solid  form,  and  on  one  occasion  made  camp-fires 
with  it.  I  have  found  good  bituminous  coal  on  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
On  a  branch  of  the  Colorado,  and  on  the  east  side  on  a  branch  of  Wind  River,  which 
locations  are  immediately  South  and  North  of  the  heads  of  the  Snake  River,  I  have 
little  doubt  of  its  existence  at  the  heads  of  the  streams  issuing  into  this  valley  from 
the  mountains. 

Glauber,  Epsom,  and  common  salt  are  found,  occasionally,  where  waters  have 
evaporated,  and  rock  salt  is  found  in  the  mountains  which  divide  the  valley  from  that 
of  the  Salt  Lake.  Crystals  of  salt  were  shown  me  by  one  of  my  men,  which  he  said 
he  picked  up  on  Big  Wood  River,  where  it  issues  from  the  Basaltic  Rock,  but,  from 
the  appearance  of  that  place,  I  judge  it  was  not  near  the  place  of  its  formation.  At 
Fort  Hall,  salt  was  traded  from  the  Indians  sufficient  for  seasoning  the  meats  eaten 
there,  and  by  the  trappers  and  traders  sent  from  the  post.  Obsidian,  of  which  the 
Indians  make  knives  and  arrow-heads,  is  common. 
27 


210  TRIBAL   ORGANIZATION, 

While  travelling  from  Pierre's  Hole  to  Powder  River  by  the  trail  on  the  south  side 
of  Snake  River,  from  the  24th  day  of  July  to  the  4th  day  of  October,  1832,  rain  fell 
but  twice,  and  probably  not  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  each  time.  The  dryness 
of  the  atmosphere,  at  this  time,  was  so  great  that  on  Raft  River,  on  the  15th  of 
August,  I  could  not  discharge  one  barrel  of  my  double  percussion  gun  without  causing 
the  other  to  explode  from  the  slightly  increased  heat.  One  man  was  wounded  in  this 
way,  and  guns  several  times  exploded,  and  I  was  obliged  to  discontinue  the  practice 
of  placing  caps  on  the  guns,  in  the  day-time,  until  immediately  wanted  for  use. 

On  the  heads  of  Portneuf,  on  the  10th  of  August,  1832,  I  noted  the  thermometer, 
at  sunrise,  at  18°  above  zero,  and  the  noon  following,  at  92°.  In  the  immediate 
valley  of  Snake  River  the  variation  is  less,  but  still  much  greater  than  in  any  part  of 
the  United  States.  I  find  noted  in  my  journal,  llth  of  September,  1832,  being  then 
at  the  mouth  of  Bruneau,  that  the  average  difference  between  sunrise  and  noon  was 
as  much  as  40°.  In  1835,  while  travelling  from  Big  Wood  to  Fort  Hall,  by  the  trail 
on  the  north  side  of  Snake  River,  from  the  18th  of  November  to  the  5th  of  December, 
it  rained  two  days  and  snowed  one,  at  both  times  heavily,  and  during  this  time  the 
average  of  the  thermometer,  at  sunrise,  was  8i°  above  zero.  Its  greatest  variation 
was  from  7°  below  to  38°  above  zero. 

This  country  has  ragged  mountains  for  the  boundary  of  its  valley,  the  higher  points 
of  which  retain  their  snow  most  of  the  year.  There  are  high  and  extensive  barren 
plains  or  table-lands,  covered  with  artemisia,  prickly-pear,  and  some  other  plants 
common  to  excessively  dry  and  barren  regions,  with  a  little  grass.  These  table-lands 
are  nearly  destitute  of  water.  They  are  bounded  by  the  mountains  on  all  sides,  being 
intersected  by  these  streams,  which  appear  to  occupy  fissures  formed  by  the  shrinkage 
when  an  immense  sea  of  lava  cooled  down  to  basalt.  These  table-lands  might  sustain 
sheep  and  goats  to  a  limited  extent.  They  are  unfeasible  for  any  kind  of  cultivation 
near  their  mountain  border,  from  the  extreme  coldness  of  the  nights ;  and  elsewhere, 
from  the  same  cause,  superadded  to  extreme  dryness  and  poverty  of  soil.  The  bounds 
between  the  table-land  and  the  river  or  bottom  land,  are  generally  very  precipitous, 
and  mostly  of  columnar  basalt.  The  bottoms  are  generally  confined,  sometimes  of 
good  soil,  but  almost  always  too  dry  to  produce  strong  vegetation,  except  near  springs 
and  other  moist  places,  which  are  rare,  or  of  small  extent ;  frequently  salts  cover 
the  soil  and  render  it  barren,  but  with  irrigation,  for  which  there  are  great  facilities, 
agriculture  might  be  conducted  so  as  to  supply  military  posts  and  emigrants,  together 
with  what  would  be  required  for  a  sparse  population. 

The  valley  of  Fort  Hall  is  the  best  portion  of  the  country  for  attempting  agricul 
tural  operations  for  the  supply  of  its  eastern  part. 

The  valleys  of  the  streams  from  Brule  to  Grand  Ronde  are  fertile,  and  adequate  to 
supply,  with  slight  irrigation,  a  large  quantity  of  agricultural  products,  and  in  some 


Back 


Magnified  Section  of  Bow 


: 


Boiling k  rn-i-nlfing  Cup 


'  .nking  Pot  *•  " 


Drawn  "by  Capt  S.  Eau'.. 

SHOSHONF.F,     IMPLEMENT  S. 


HISTORY,   AND   GOVERNMENT.  211 

places  no  irrigation  would  be  required ;  and  the  neighboring  plains  and  mountains 
afford  fine  grazing  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats. 

The  mountains  of  this  valley  alone  produce  wood;  elsewhere  it  is  rare  to  find 
timber  large  enough  to  make  a  gun-stock ;  but  there  is  a  little  cotton- wood  on  the 
borders  and  islands  of  Snake  River,  at  and  above  Fort  Hall,  and  some  on  Big  Wood 
River.  The  Blue  Mountains  have  abundance  of  good  building  timber  in  the  vicinity 
of  good  land.  One  great  want  of  this  region  will  be  fuel. 

The  Indians,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  have  never  planted  a  seed ;  nor  is  it 
known  that  they  ever  had  any  kind  of  metal  before  they  were  visited  by  the  whites, 
or  that  metals  exist  in  the  country. 

LETTER  V. 

April  23d,  1848. 
SIR: 

The  utensils ,  originally  used  by  the  Indians  of  the  valley  of  the  Saaptin  or 
Snake  River,  were  wholly  of  stone,  clay,  bone,  or  wood.  So  far  as  I  observed,  they 
possessed  no  metals.  Their  implements  were  the  pot,  bow  and  arrow,  knives,  graining 
tools,  awls,  root-diggers,  fish-spears,  nets,  a  kind  of  boat  or  raft,  the  pipe,  mats  for 
shelter,  and  implements  to  produce  fire. 

The  pot  most  commonly  used  was  formed  of  some  kind  of  long  tough  roots,  wound 
in  plies  around  a  centre,  shortening  the  circumference  of  the  outer  plies  so  as  to  form 
a  vessel  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  bee-hive.  (See  Plate  76.)  These  plies  are  held 
together  by  a  small  tough  root  passed  through  a  space  made  by  forcing  an  awl 
between  the  two  last  plies,  and  winding  the  root  under  the  last,  and  over  the  one  to 
be  added  in  the  progress  of  formation,,  being  careful  to  force  enough  of  these  thread 
like  roots  between  the  two  last  plies  to  make  the  vessel  water-tight.  This  pot  is  used 
for  a  drinking-vessel,  as  well  as  a  boiling  implement.  With  it,  the  latter  operation  is 
performed  by  heating  stones  and  immersing  them  in  the  water  contained  in  it,  until 
the  required  heat  is  attained,  and  the  contents,  chiefly  fish,  cooked,  producing  a  mess 
mixed  with  soot,  ashes,  and  dirt.  The  Squaws,  when  moving  camp,  generally  put 
these  pots  on  their  heads,  probably  more  for  the  convenience  of  carrying,  than  with 
the  idea  of  a  hat,  which  was  an  article  otherwise  unknown  to  them.  I  have  also  seen 
among  these  Indians  a  stone  pot,  holding  about  two  quarts,  made  of  pure  lava,  and 
shaped  much  like  the  black-lead  pot  used  in  melting  metals,  (See  Plate  76,)  and  think 
it  would  stand  fire  to  be  used  as  a  boiling-pot,  but  have  never  seen  it  so  used,  or  in 
any  other  way.  It  might  have  been  used  to  pound  seeds,  hawthorns,  choke-cherries, 
and  service-berries,  which  these  Indians,  after  pounding,  make  into  cakes  and  dry  for 
food.  These  last  pots  are  very  rare,  and  it  must  have  been  a  great  labor  to  make 
one.  The  first  kind  of  pots  were  common  to  the  Indians  at  the  mouth  of  the  Colum 
bia,  as  well  as  the  mats. 


212  TRIBAL   ORGANIZATION, 

The  bows  which  I  have  seen  were  made  of  the  horns  of  the  mountain  sheep  and 
elk,  and  of  wood,  and  are  the  best  specimen  of  the  skill  of  these  Indians.  When  of 
horn,  they  are  about  two  feet  ten  inches  long,  and  when  unstrained  have  a  curve 
backwards.  They  are  of  two  parts,  spliced  in  the  centre  by  sturgeon  glue,  and  deer- 
sinews,  wound  around  a  splice.  The  horn  is  brought  into  shape  by  heating  and 
wetting,  and  worked  smooth  by  scraping  with  sharp  stones,  and  being  drawn  between 
two  rough  stones.  A  cross  section  of  the  bow  would  show  the  back  side  less  convex 
than  the  front.  (See  Plate  76.)  At  the  centre,  where  the  bow  is  spliced,  before 
winding  the  splice,  two  deer-sinews,  nearly  entire,  are  strongly  glued  and  secured  by 
their  butt-ends ;  the  small  ends  of  them  being  outward  at  the  ends  of  the  bow.  Where 
they  are  strongly  wound  and  secured,  these  sinews  cover  the  whole  width  of  the  back 
of  the  bow.  As  a  matter  of  ornament,  the  skin  of  a  snake,  commonly  that  of  the 
rattlesnake,  is  glued  externally  on  the  back  of  the  bow.  The  string  is  of  twisted 
sinew,  and  is  used  loose,  and  those  using  this  bow  require  a  guard  to  protect  the  hand 
which  holds  it.  Altogether,  it  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  and  beautiful  bows  I  have 
seen. 

The  head  of  the  arrow  is  formed  by  breaking  pieces  of  obsidian  in  small  parts, 
and  selecting  those  nearest  the  desired  form.  In  this  selection,  those  of  the  right, 
thickness  are  taken.  In  finishing  them,  every  edge  of  such  a  piece  is  laid  upon  a 
hard  stone,  and  the  other  struck  with  another  hard  stone,  varying  the  direction  and 
force  of  the  blow,  to  produce  the  desired  result.  It  is  an  operation  which  requires 
skill,  and  many  are  broken  when  nearly  finished,  and  thrown  away.  When  formed, 
it  is  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long  and  half  an  inch  wide,  and  quite  thin,  and  for 
hunting  purposes  formed  as  is  shown  in  Plate  76.  It  is  attached  by  inserting  its  near 
or  shaft  end  in  a  split  in  the  front  arrow-end  of  the  shaft,  and  wound  with  sinews  in 
such  a  manner  as  when  the  shaft  is  drawn  from  an  animal,  the  head  is  withdrawn 
also,  and  the  increased  width  just  at  the  near  end  of  it,  is  intended  to  secure  this 
result.  The  arrow-heads  used  for  warlike  purposes,  are  formed  without  this  increased 
width,  so  that  when  the  shaft  is  drawn  out  the  head  will  be  left,  to  increase  the 
mischief.  It  is  said  they  poison  these  arrows,  but  I  do  not  know  the  fact.  They 
sometimes  appear  to  have  been  dipped  in  some  dark-colored  fluid,  which  has  dried  on 
them. 

The  shaft  is  about  two  and  a  half  feet  long,  and  generally  made  of  a  shrub  which 
the  hunters  call  grease-bush.  This  is  a  small  bush  like  the  currant,  and  is  nearly  as 
hard  as  box-wood.  It  is  very  applicable  to  the  steaming  process,  and  is  made  straight 
by  wetting  and  immersing  in  hot  sand  and  ashes,  and  brought  into  shape  by  the  hand 
and  eye.  To  reduce  the  short  crooks  and  knobs,  it  is  drawn  between  two  rough  grit 
stones,  each  of  which  has  a  slight  groove  in  it,  and  coarse  sand  is  also  used  to  increase 
the  friction.  An  arrow-shaft,  finished,  appears  as  though  it  had  been  nicely  turned. 
The  arrow  is  used  without  a  notch,  and  is  feathered  for  about  five  inches  near  its  rear 


HISTORY,  AND  GOVERNMENT.  213 

end,  leaving  space  behind,  just  enough  for  the  operator  to  grasp  it  in  drawing  the  bow. 
These  feathers  are  stripped  from  the  sides  of  a  suitable  quill,  and  placed  on  the  shaft 
in  a  form  a  little  winding,  but  quite  similar  to  the  position  they  occupied  on  the  quill. 
It  produces  the  effect  of  keeping  the  tail  of  the  shaft  exactly  in  rear  of  the  head,  and 
also  a  rotary  motion  on  its  axis,  whereby  the  exactitude  of  its  course  is  maintained. 

The  knives  I  have  seen  are  rude  instruments  produced  by  breaking  pieces  of 
obsidian,  which  has  a  tendency  to  form  sharp  edges,  like  glass,  and  is  common  in  the 
country ;  and  selecting  those  pieces  which  approach  the  desired  form,  and  having  a 
sharp  edge,  this  implement  is  often  used  without  any  other  preparation,  but  sometimes 
a  wooden  or  horn  handle  is  attached,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  shafts  of  the  arrows. 

The  graining  tools  for  preparing  skins,  were  ordinarily  made  of  bone,  using  such  as 
had  a  hard  enamel  outside,  and  were  softer  within.  Sometimes  obsidian  was  used  for 
this  purpose  secured  to  the  staff. 

Awls  were  made  of  bone  rubbed  to  a  sharp  point,  and  also  large  thorns. 

Root-diggers  are  crooked  sticks,  the  end  used  in  the  earth  being  curved  and 
sharpened  by  putting  it  in  the  fire  and  rubbing  against  a  rough  stone,  which  both 
points  and  hardens  them ;  they  are  also  made  of  elk  and  deer  horn,  attached  to  a 
stick.  They  are  used  to  obtain  some  small  roots  which  the  country  produces,  such  as 
kama,  souk,  yampas,  onions,  tobacco-root,  &c. 

The  fish-spear  is  a  beautiful  adaptation  of  an  idea  to  a  purpose.  The  head  of  it 
is  formed  thus,  (See  Plate  76) ;  and  is  of  bone,  to  which  a  small  strong  line  is 
attached  near  the  middle,  connecting  it  with  the  shaft,  about  two  feet  from  the  point. 
Somewhat  toward  the  forward  end  of  this  head,  there  is  a  small  hole,  which  enters  it 
ranging  acutely  toward  the  point  of  the  head ;  it  is  quite  shallow.  In  this  hole  the 
front  end  of  the  shaft  is  placed.  This  head  is  about  two  and  a  half  inches  long,  the 
shaft  about  ten  feet,  and  of  light  willow.  When  a  salmon  or  sturgeon  is  struck,  the 
head  is  at  once  detached  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  shaft,  and  being  constrained  by  the 
string,  which  still  connects  it  with  the  operator,  turns  its  position  to  one  crosswise  of 
its  direction  while  entering.  If  the  fish  is  strong,  the  staff  is  relinquished,  and 
operates  as  a  buoy  to  obtain  the  fish  when  he  has  tired  down  by  struggling.  These 
Indians  are  very  expert  in  the  use  of  this  instrument,  and  take  many  fish  at  all  the 
falls  and  rapid  waters,  and  construct,  on  small  streams,  barriers  of  stones  or  brush, 
to  force  the  fish  into  certain  places,  where  they  watch  for  them,  often  at  night  with  a 
light. 

Fish-nets  are  made  with  the  outer  bark  of  some  weed  which  grows  in  the  country, 
but  I  took  ho  particular  note  of  what  it  was,  or  how  separated  from  the  stalk.  It 
makes  a  line  stronger  than  any  of  those  I  had  among  my  outfit,  although  they  were 
selected  from  the  best  materials  of  an  angling  warehouse  by  myself,  who  profess  to  be 
a  judge  of  such  articles.  The  twine  is  formed  by  laying  the  fibre  doubled  across  the 
knee,  the  bight  towards  the  left,  and  held  between  the  thumb  and  finger  of  that  hand, 


214  TRIBAL   ORGANIZATION, 

with  the  two  parts  which  are  to  form  the  twine  toward  the  right  and  a  little  separated; 
rolling  these  two  parts  between  the  knee  and  right  hand,  outwardly  from  the  operator, 
and  twisting  the  bight  between  the  thumb  and  finger  of  the  left  hand,  forms  the 
thread.  More  fibre  is  added  as  that  first  commenced  on  diminishes  in  size,  so  as  to 
make  a  continuous  and'equal  line.  In  this  way,  excellent  twine  is  made  much  more 
rapidly  than  could  be  expected.  The  nets  are  of  two  kinds :  the  scoop,  which  is  pre 
cisely  the  same  as  is  used  in  the  United  States ;  and  the  seine,  which  is  also  in  prin 
ciple  exactly  the  same ;  and  the  knot  used  in  netting  also  appears  to  me  exactly  the 
same :  but  in  this  I  may  be  mistaken,  as  I  have  never  seen  the  operation  performed. 
The  leaded  line  is  formed  by  attaching  oblong  rounded  stones,  with  a  sunken  groove 
near  the  middle  in  which  to  wind  the  attaching  ligature.  Reeds  are  used  for  floats. 

BOATS  OR  RAFTS. — The  navigation  of  this  region  appears  to  have  been  confined  to 
crossing  the  streams  when  the  water  was  too  cold  for  comfortable  swimming.  The 
only  apparatus  used  was  little  more  than  a  good  raft,  made  of  reeds  which  abound  on 
many  of  the  streams.  They  are  about  eight  feet  long,  and  formed  by  placing  small 
bundles  of  reeds,  with  the  butt-ends  introduced  and  lashed  together,  with  their  small 
ends  outwards.  Several  of  these  bundles  are  lashed  together  beside  each  other,  and 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  cavity  on  top.  There  is  no  attempt  to  make  it  tight ; 
the  only  dependence  is  on  the  great  buoyancy  of  the  materials  used.  It  is  navigated 
with  a  stick,  and  almost  entirely  by  pushing.  This  rude  form  of  navigation,  appa 
rently,  is  the  only  one  ever  used  in  the  country,  in  which,  in  fact,  there  is  hardly 
timber  enough  for  a  more  improved  form. 

Pipes  are  used  with  a  stem,  usually  about  two  feet  long.  The  bowl  is  sometimes 
made  of  fuller's  earth,  and  also  of  soapstone. 

Mats  are  made  from  large  rushes,  in  a  manner  which  appears  to  me  to  be  the  same 
by  which  the  Chinese  make  similar  fabrics.  They  are  used  to  sleep  on,  and  to  con 
struct  lodges.  They  are  about  four  feet  wide,  and  when  carried  are  rolled  up  like  a 
scroll. 

These  Indians  produce  fire  by  using  a  shaft  similar  to  that  of  an  arrow,  about  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  two  feet  long ;  one  end  of  which  is  bluntly  pointed, 
and  placed  in  a  shallow  hole  in  a  hard,  dry  piece  of  wood.  One  of  the  operators 
takes  it  between  his  opened  hands,  near  the  top,  and  rolls  it  between  them  back  and 
forth,  forcing  downwards,  and  when  his  hands  approach  the  lower  end,  another  seizes 
it  in  the  same  manner ;  and  thus  the  attrition  is  maintained  until  fire  is  produced. 
It  is  performed  with  great  quickness  and  dexterity;  but  it  is  hard  work,  and  few 
whites  could*  perform  the  feat. 


HISTORY,  AND   GOVERNMENT.  215 


LETTER  VI. 

May  1st,  1848. 

SIR: 

Yesterday  I  received  your  letter  of  the  25th  of  April. 

Herewith  is  my  fourth  and  last  communication  relating  to  that  portion  of  the  conti 
nent  drained  by  Snake  River ;  unless  you  deem  it  proper  in  me  to  suggest  measures 
for  the  improvement  of  the  Indians  in  connection  with  establishing  a  suitable  route  to 
the  more  important  regions  beyond,  which  are  to  be  controlled  by  this  government. 

I  may  find  in  my  records  some  small  matters  relating  to  the  valley  of  the  Salt  Lake, 
that  of  the  Colorado,  Spokan,  or  Flathead  Rivers,  or  the  region  enclosed  between  the 
Blue  and  California  Mountains,  and  between  the  latter  and  the  sea.  Will  you  please 
advise  me  as  regards  the  above. 

I  have  attached  much  importance  to  the  Snake  country,  as  being  the  road  to 
Oregon  and  California, 

LETTER  VII. 

May  1st,  1848. 

SIR: 

I  know  very  little  of  the  language  of  the  Shoshonees,  and  the  following  very 
limited  list  may  not  be  correct ;  for  instance,  it  seems  impossible  that  the  meat  and 
fish  knife  could  have  the  same  name,  as,  in  a  rude  form,  they  were  both  in  use  among 
them ;  and  the  name  of  the  mule  looks  as  if  it  were  derived  from  Mexico ;  and  the 
word  for  pantaloons  and  buffalo  robe  is  the  same.  Probably  they  could  have  had  no 
original  name  for  an  article  they  did  not  possess. 

It  is  difficult  for  persons  not  better  educated  than  Indian  traders  usually  are,  to 
represent  by  English  letters  the  true  sound  of  Indian  words;  beside  which,  the 
Indians  differ  much  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  same  word.  Another  difficulty  is, 
that  when  interrogated,  Indians  almost  always  answer  "  yes  "  to  a  leading  question, 
which  deceives  those  who  are  unused  to  them  and  the  proper  method  of  examination. 

In  1832,  when  I  first  went  among  the  Shoshonees,  we  wished  to  know  the  name  of 
the  beaver,  but  could  not  succeed  for  several  days.  At  last  one  of  my  trappers  said 
he  had  learned  it  from  an  Indian,  and  that  it  was  "  bonaque."  Subsequently  we 
learned  that  this  was  a  tribal  name  for  a  division  of  the  Snakes.  A  writer  calls  one 
of  the  streams  entering  the  Willamette  the  "  Claxter,"  but  I  could  never  find  a  stream 
by  that  name,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  person  who  obtained  it  asked  a 
question  which  was  not  understood,  and  the  Indian  very  naturally  said  "  Claxter,"  or 
"  What  ?  "  or  "  What  do  you  mean  ?  "  which  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  the  country 
referred  to. 


216  TRIBAL   ORGANIZATION, 

Beaver Harnitze. 

Muskrat '. .  ^  .  T  j  ~ .     .     .     .  Pauitze. 

Salmon Arki. 

Mule Mourah. 

Horse Tohuech. 

White  Men Tarbabo. 

Bear Wearabze. 

Fish-hook.     .,.:..:,*    .     .     .  •*;.-«::»  *ii  •;:;«     .     .  Natzoon. 

Clasp-knife •::'..      Harbeteze. 

Awl,  or  Fish-knife Wehe. 

Beaver-trap Harnitzeoon. 

Tin  Basin,  or  Pot Wetour. 

Pipe Parm. 

Bridle Auke-wa-nuss. 

Gun Peait. 

Saddle Narrino. 

Whip Neutequar. 

Powder Nargotouche. 

Beads Puetzo-mo.1 

Long  Shells Tawacar. 

Hatchet Hohanic. 

Grass Shawneep. 

Tobacco i'#«  <fc!  •     •     •     •      Too-parm. 

River,  or  Water     .     .     .  tg^f,.^  ^  >•,,*,;  ^> '.;#;. ••  Paah. 

Sun Tarpe. 

Moon Uphuie. 

Shirt Wanup.2 

Waistcoat Too-wa-nup. 

Buffalo  Kobe Cootche. 

Trowsers Cootche. 

..  i  1  ,t       J.'<     -'t      \     f  '.J       .  -    „•     •  i,    i 

Greatcoat -n  :,     Toshi-wanup. 

Moccasins Maunep. 

These  Indians  nearly  starve  to  death  annually,  and  in  winter  and  spring  are 
emaciated  to  the  last  degree ;  the  trappers  used  to  think  they  all  eventually  died  from 
starvation,  as  they  became  old  and  feeble.  In  salmon-time  they  get  fat.  In  my 
wanderings  I  have  never  seen  any  of  them  remaining,  and  do  not  know  how  they 

1  These  are  called  Hiaguoio  on  the  North-west  Coast,  and  are  there  a  medium  of  trade. 
1  Probably  the  word  for  clothing. 


HISTORY,   AND    GOVERNMENT.  217 

dispose  of  their  dead ;  many  believed  they  were  cannibals,  but  I  have  no  evidence  of 
this  fact. 

In  the  portion  of  this  country  which  is  not  destitute  of  game,  they  pound  the  bones 
of  the  animals  they  kill  fine,  and  after  they  are  boiled,  eat  a  large  portion  of  them. 

These  Indians,  according  to  my  experience,  do  not  possess  the  feelings  of  revenge 
or  gratitude  in  as  great  a  degree  as  the  English  race,  and  have  almost  none,  as  com 
pared  with  the  conceived  notions  of  the  original  inhabitants  of  this  continent.  This 
discrepancy  struck  me  forcibly  when  I  first  visited  them,  with  no  other  knowledge  of 
their  character  than  I  had  derived  from  books.  For  anything  I  could  see,  they  treated 
those  best  whom  they  most  feared.  A  band  of  them  who  had  wintered  at  Fort  Hall 
and  received  much  food  and  many  presents,  particularly  from  two  hunters  named 
Abbot  and  Deforest,  who  afterwards  accompanied  them  on  the  spring  hunt,  murdered 
them  for  their  equipment  of  horses,  guns,  traps,  &c.,  although  no  quarrel  was  alleged 
to  exist.  At  another  time,  for  stealing  some  horses  and  traps,  I  gave  one  of  them 
two  dozen  lashes  at  the  flag-staff,  and  also  took  horses  enough  to  pay  for  the  property 
stolen ;  and  he  became  afterwards  a  serviceable  hunter,  and  brought  many  skins  to  the 
Fort. 

Near  Fort  Hall,  in  1834,  there  were  plenty  of  buffalo,  but  soon  after  the  Fort  was 
established  they  disappeared  from  its  neighborhood.  The  beaver  disappeared  next. 

The  origin  of  the  Indians  has  employed  so  much  ingenuity  and  learning,  that  it  is 
almost  useless  on  my  part  to  make  any  suggestions.  The  difference  of  language  and 
physical  appearance  leaves  little  doubt  that  they  have  come  at  several  widely  sepa 
rated  periods  of  time,  and  perhaps  also  from  very  different  regions.  Some  of  the 
Indians  of  the  Valley  of  the  Snake  River  have  the  aquiline  countenance  so  common 
among  the  Crows,  but  a  greater  portion  of  them  have  the  features  of  the  Chinnooks 
and  other  Indians  about  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia. 

In  the  winter  of  1833  I  saw  two  Japanese  who  had  been  wrecked  in  a  Junk  near 
the  entrance  to  the  Straits  of  de  Fuca;  and  if  they  had  been  dressed  in  the  same 
manner,  and  placed  with  the  Chinnook  slaves  whose  heads  are  not  flattened,  I  could 
not  have  discovered  the  difference. 


LETTER  VIII. 

May  20th,  1848. 

SlB: 

I  have  received  your  favor  of  the  12th  inst.     I  shall  not  be  able  to  give 
much  information  on  any  of  the  subjects  you  propose. 

I  did  not  commence  with  the  valley  of  the  Colorado,  which  is  the  first  in  the  tra 
montane  series,  because  I  understood  the  inquiry  to  relate  almost  entirely  to  Indians, 
and  this  valley  being  decidedly  a  den  of  thieves,  where  every  one  keeps  every  other 
28  ' 


218  TRIBAL  ORGANIZATION, 

at  arms-length,  I  had  no  knowledge  of  its  inhabitants,  if  those  who  infest  it  can  be 
so  called. 

I  now  understand  that  the  inquiry  extends  to  the  whole  subject.  What  lias,  what 
does,  and  what  will  affect  the  Indian  race  or  our  own  ?  To  deduce  a  policy  suitable  to 
both,  would  it  not  be  well  to  place  my  communications  in  the  same  order  as  the  regions 
to  which  they  relate  are  on  the  route  to  the  Pacific? 

I  can  only  add  a  few  words  used  by  the  Shoshonees. 

Kay,  or  Tkay No. 

Kaywut None. 

Kayshaunt Bad,  or  not  good. 

„,  (  Good,  or,  perhaps,  many  :  it 

\      commonly  expresses  good. 

LETTER  IX. 

May  20th,  1848. 
SIR: 

I  have  passed  several  times  through  the  country  drained  by  the  mountain 
branches  of  the  Colorado  of  the  West.  Of  that  portion  which  is  south  of  Brown's 
Hole,  in  about  41°  north  latitude,  I  know  nothing  from  personal  observation.  The 
river  below  is  said  to  be  impassible,  being  filled  with  rapids,  and  occupying  a  mere 
crevice  in  the  basaltic  rocks,  and  the  country  a  waste  of  sand  and  rocks. 

The  valley  northward  of  Brown's  Hole  is  occupied  by  the  two  main  forks  of  the 
Colorado.  Green  Eiver,  in  six  branches,  heads  in  the  Kocky  Mountains  to  the  north 
of  the  South  Pass,  and  near  the  Sweet-water  of  the  Platte ;  and  Grand  Eiver,  which  is 
the  larger  branch,  heads  in  the  mountains  south  of  the  South  Pass,  and  with  the 
Arkansas.  These  branches  rise  in  the  primitive  and  transition  regions  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  but  at  the  immediate  base  of  these  mountains  the  country  becomes 
volcanic,  and  remains  so  as  far  south  as  I  have  visited  it.  These  waters  are  in  flood 
in  June  and  July.  There  are  runs  of  salt  water,  but  whether  there  is  any  body  of 
common  salt  was  not  known  in  the  year  1836,  but  I  have  obtained  it  by  boiling  down 
a  solution  of  the  salts  which  whiten  the  earth  in  many  places.  I  met  with  lignite 
in  small  veins,  gypsum,  and  ancient  marine  shells,  about  40  miles  west  of  South  Snake 
Kiver,  in  latitude  40°  30'  north,  longitude  108°  west.  On  Elk  and  Metols  Forks  of 
Grand  River,  in  latitude  40°  40'  north,  longitude  107°  west,  I  saw  good  bituminous 
coal  in  blocks  in  the  streams,  and  cropping  out  from  the  sandstone  on  their  banks. 
These  positions  were  derived  from  dead  reckoning  from  Fort  Hall,  the  position  of 
which  had  been  previously  ascertained. 

While  travelling  from  Sweet-water  to  Lewis'  River,  from  the  23d  June  to  6th  July, 
1832,  there  was  frost  every  night  and  snow  several  times. 


HISTORY,   AND   GOVERNMENT.  219 

Horses  can  be  wintered  at  the  Forks  of  Sandy,  and  on  all  the  branches  of  Grand 
River,  near  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  and  at  Brown's  Hole,  which  last  is  a  favorite 
spot. 

This  valley  may  be  said  to  produce  no  timber,  except  in  the  verge  of  the  mountains. 
On  the  heads  of  Green  River,  quaking  asp,  a  kind  of  pine,  and  a  kind  of  spruce,  is 
found :  on  the  heads  of  Grand  River,  in  addition  to  these,  pitch  pine,  box,  alder,  and 
scrub  oak.  Grass  is  barely  tolerable  on  the  heads  of  Green  River,  but  is  very  fine  on 
those  of  Grand  River. 

When  I  first  visited  this  region  in  1832,  it  was  a  fine  game  country.  Besides 
Buffalo  in  the  greatest  abundance,  there  were  Elk,  Bear,  Deer,  Sheep,  Antelope,  and 
Beaver  in  great  numbers.  This  abundance  of  game  I  attributed  to  its  having  always 
been  a  war-ground  for  the  surrounding  tribes.  Neither  the  Indians,  nor  the  whites, 
dared  visit  it  openly,  except  in  large  camps,  and  the  small  marauding  parties  of  Indians 
were  in  the  habit  of  skulking  in  the  high  mountains,  watching  the  country,  to  strike 
on  any  they  might  find  unprepared,  and  their  movements  caused  little  disturbance  to 
the  game.  From  these  causes  the  country  could  never  have  been  closely  hunted.  I 
am  uncertain  if  any  Indians  inhabit  any  portion  of  this  valley,  as  being  particularly 
their  own,  above  Brown's  Hole.  If  so,  it  is  the  Green  River  Snakes,  whose  village  of 
152  lodges,  I  met  on  the  main  fork  of  Grand  River,  on  the  18th  July,  1836.  These 
Snakes  appear  to  me  to  be  of  the  same  stock  as  those  of  Lewis  River.  They  resemble 
them  in  physical  appearance,  but  living  in  a  better  country,  they  are  larger  and  better 
looking  men,  and  appear  more  intelligent.  Of  their  language  I  know  nothing.  I  had 
no  intimate  intercourse  with  them.  They  were  then  mischievous,  and  would  rob  and 
murder  if  they  had  a  safe  opportunity.  If  they  have  any  permanent  home  in  this 
valley,  it  must  be  on  the  extreme  south-eastern  edge,  where  I  have  not  been. 

I  have  also  met  in  this  valley  the  Araphahoe  village,  and  bands,  or  war-parties,  of 
the  Youta's,  Crows,  and  Blackfeet,  all  of  whom  were  bad  neighbors. 

The  northern  or  Green  River  division  of  this  valley,  is  unfit  to  produce  anything, 
that  I  know  of,  for  human  sustenance,  except  such  as  may  be  derived  from  grazing. 
Horses,  kine,  sheep,  and  goats,  may  be  sustained  during  the  year,  using  the  vicinity 
of  the  mountains  in  the  warm  months,  and  retiring  south  at  the  approach  of  cold 
weather. 

The  many  fertile  and  warm  valleys  of  Grand  River  would  sustain,  at  all  seasons, 
the  same  animals,  and  also  produce  wheat  and  many  other  articles  suitable  for  food, 
and  could  be  brought  to  sustain  a  considerable  population. 


LETTER  X. 

May  26th,  1848. 
Sm: 

I  now  send  you  a  short  notice  of  the  valley  of  the  Bear  River.     The  recent 

information  from  Captain   Fremont,  obtained  under  more  favorable   circumstances, 


220  TRIBAL   ORGANIZATION, 

renders  what  I  might  convey  obsolete,  and  I  allude  to  it  only  as  an  important  position 
in  the  route  to  Oregon. 

Of  the  valley  between  the  Blue  and  Cascade  Mountains,  I  speak  more  fully,  because 
I  think  the  importance  of  this  section  has  not  been  properly  stated. 

In  my  next,  I  will  indicate  the  means  which  I  think  should  be  used  in  establishing 
the  route  between  the  east  and  the  west,  and  how  it  may  be  connected  with  the 
improvement  of  the  Indian  races  who  frequent  or  dwell  in  the  countries  through 
which  it  may  pass. 

I  have  no  published  map  of  these  regions,  except  one  by  Colonel  J.  J.  Abert,  in 
1838.  If  there  is  any,  more  recent,  published  by  the  government,  I  should  be  pleased 
to  receive  one.  There  have  been  so  many  names  given  to  the  streams  of  these  remote 
countries,  and  so  often  the  same  name  to  different  streams,  that  a  map  is  necessary  to 
identify  them. 

LETTER  XL 

May  26th,  1848. 

SIR: 

The  more  recent  exploration  of  the  valley  of  Bear  River,  the  main  tributary 
of  the  Salt  Lake,  by  Captain  Fremont,  with  superior  means,  renders  any  extended 
notice  of  it,  on  my  part,  superfluous.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  points  in  the 
route  from  the  Atlantic,  by  the  Platte,  to  the  Pacific,  by  Lewis'  River.  The  valley, 
a  little  above  or  below  the  Soda  Springs,  is  eminently  fitted  for  a  military  post.  It  is 
the  most  eastern  residence  of  the  "  Diggers,"  who  are  the  most  likely,  of  the  Indians 
in  those  regions,  to  form  a  nucleus  in  the  social  organization  of  their  race ;  and  the 
valley  itself  is  well  fitted  for  grazing  and  cultivation,  and  would  produce  abundance 
of  horses,  kine,  sheep,  and  goats,  and  also  abundance  of  salt  to  cure  meats. 

This  valley  is  peculiar  in  one  respect.  Its  outlet  in  the  Salt  Lake  is  remote  from 
the  most  hostile  and  formidable  tribes,  while  its  southern  and  northern  sides  are 
defined  by  mountains  impassable  a  considerable  portion  of  the  year,  from  snows,  and 
at  all  seasons  affording  small  facilities  for  the  passage  of  cattle  or  horses.  At  the 
north-eastern  extreme  of  its  great  bend,  there  are  passes,  but  they  are  easily  watched. 
A  settlement  here  would  be  made  secure  from  the  inroads  of  all  hostile  Indians,  and 
would  have  great  facilities  for  producing  the  supplies  most  required  in  the  neighboring 
regions.1 

Buffalo  were  in  great  numbers  in  this  valley  in  1836,  but  must  have  disappeared, 
as  well  as  the  beaver,  by  this  time.  The  mountain  sheep  were  then  plenty  in  the 
hills,  and  I  presume  are  so  now,  as  they  breed  where  they  cannot  be  easily  disturbed. 
They  were  formerly  taken  in  considerable  numbers,  where  the  deep  snows  of  the 
mountains  compelled  them  to  visit  the  subordinate  cliffs. 

'  This  opinion  has  been  remarkably  verified  by  the  success  of  the  Mormon  settlement,  near  that  point. 


HISTORY,  AND   GOVERNMENT.  221 

Rain  is  frequent  in  this  valley,  but  irrigation,  for  which  there  is  abundant  means, 
Avould  be  required  for  an  extended  agriculture.  Formerly,  I  have  seen  the  Utahs, 
Crows,  and  Blackfeet  in  this  valley,  but  the  Shoshonees  are  its  true  occupants.  They 
live  in  the  caves  and  mountains,  and  retire  to  their  inaccessible  haunts  on  the  appear 
ance  of  their  enemies.  Horses,  kine,  sheep,  and  goats  could  be  grazed  the  year  round, 
without  other  care  than  that  of  the  herdsman,  and  the  protection  of  a  small  military 
force. 

I  confine  my  remarks  on  the  valley  lying  between  the  Blue  and  Cascade  Mountains, 
to  that  part  of  it  which  lies  between  the  Columbia  and  the  heads  of  the  small  streams 
that  enter  it  from  the  south.  The  Snake,  or  Digger  Indians  inhabit  this  region  near 
the  heads  of  these  small  waters;  in  winter  living  on  the  deer  and  other  animals 
driven,  by  the  snows  of  the  mountains,  within  their  reach ;  in  more  genial  seasons, 
on  roots  and  fish.  Besides  these,  the  N^zperces,  Walla- Wallahs,  and  Cayouses  visit 
this  region.  The  latter  I  have  met  in  large  camps,  in  the  winter,  hunting  deer,  &c. 
These  Indians,  having, plenty  of  horses,  make  an  extensive  surround,1  within  which 
the  animals  are  retained  by  expert  horsemen.  Others  are  sent  within  the  space  to 
keep  the  game  on  the  run ;  and  after  they  are  well  tired  down,  the  Indians  commence 
the  slaughter,  for  it  is  nothing  else.  In  this  manner  I  have  seen  many  hundreds  of 
animals  killed  at  a  single  surround.  The  game  is  elk,  bear,  black  and  white-tailed, 
and  big-horned  deer,  and  a  few  antelopes.  Beaver  and  otter  were  found  in  1835,  but 
may  now  be  extinct. 

The  country  is  mostly  a  high,  open,  rolling  prairie.  Some  of  the  streams  have  oak, 
alder,  and  cotton-wood ;  in  the  mountains  there  is  red  and  white  cedar,  and  three 
kinds  of  pine ;  some  of  the  latter  quite  large,  and  for  canoes  I  was  obliged  to  select 
the  smaller  size  of  them. 

The  formation  is  volcanic;  and  where  conglomerate  sandstone  is  found,  it  is  partly 
formed  by  the  wreck  of  volcanic  rocks.  Pumice-stone  is  frequent.  Columnar  basalt 
bounds  the  streams,  which  appear  to  occupy  chasms.  The  upper  waters  of  the  Des 
Schutes,  or  Fall  River,  runs,  for  miles,  over  a  smooth  bottom  of  white,  soft  stone,  or 
indurated  clay,  which  I  have  called  "  fullers'  earth."  Near  this  river  are  hot  and 
warm  springs  in  many  places,  and  on  a  large  scale  at  a  place  which  I  suppose  to  be 
the  same  as  Captain  Fremont's  camp  of  November  29th,  1843.  There,  I  observed  the 
thermometer  at  191°  in  one  spring,  and  134°  in  another;  and  at  this  camp  I  found, 
projecting  from  the  perpendicular  face  of  the  conglomerate  rock,  underlying  many 
hundred  feet  of  solid  basalt,  two  bones  about  the  size  of  the  thigh-bone  of  the  horse. 
They  were  white  and  mineralized  by  flinty  matter,  which  produced  fire  when  stricken 
by  the  steel.  These  were  the  only  remains  of  ancient  animal  life  I  ever  saw  on  the 
waters  of  the  Columbia,  except  a  few  shells  on  the  heads  of  Salmon  River. 

1  For  using  this  word  as  a  noun,  local  usage  in  the  Indian  country  must,  we  fancy,  be  plead 


222  TRIBAL    ORGANIZATION, 

This  valley  abounds  in  fossil  wood.  In  a  slide  from  the  mountain  near  the  Cascades, 
I  found  a  log  of  wood,  one  end  of  which  had  been  mineralized  so  fully  by  some  flinty 
matter  that  I  produced  fire  from  it  with  a  steel.  The  other  end  was  burnt  in  the  fire 
so  made. 

The  climate  of  this  valley  is  warm  in  winter.  On  the  4th  of  February,  1835,  frogs 
were  croaking.  Blackbirds  remain  through  the  year ;  and  flowers  may  be  found,  in 
some  part  of  it,  during  every  month.  Snows  and  rains  alternate  from  September  to 
March,  in  the  plains,  but  the  former  are  light,  and  do  not  remain  more  than  one  or 
two  days ;  but  in  the  immediate  verge  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  they  are  heavy.  I 
was  once  subjected  to  a  snow-storm  on  the  heads  of  the  Des  Schuts,  during  which  we 
judged  six  feet  in  depth  to  have  fallen,  and  escaped  only  by  building  canoes  and 
descending  the  river,  the  main  stream  of  which  does  not  freeze  at  any  time. 

The  thermometer  in  the  lower  valleys  of  this  region  cannot  range  much,  if  any, 
below  freezing,  during  any  portion  of  the  year ;  but  I  was  not  careful  enough  to  note 
its  indication. 

This  valley,  throughout  its  whole  extent,  produces,  generally,  "  bunch  grass,"  which 
stands  with  the  autumn  rains,  and  remains  green  during  the  winter,  drying  like  made 
hay  in  the  dry  season.  It  is  in  the  highest  degree  nutritive. 

There  is  a  waste  of  rocks  and  sand  near  the  Columbia,  and  on  its  immediate  banks. 
/  In  this  valley  are  chiefly  reared  the  horses  required  in  the  immense  region  north 
of  California,  and  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  many  of  those  used  on  the  heads 
of  the  rivers  this  side  of  the  mountains,  which  is  sufficient  proof  of  its  grazing  facilities. 
These  animals  are  raised  without  shelter,  and  on  the  natural  products  of  the  country. 
The  number  must  have  been  very  great  to  supply  the  entire  wants  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company,  including  food;  that  of  the  American  Company  in  and  about  the 
mountains  of  the  Independent  Trappers;  that  of  the  Indians  going  to  hunt  buffalo, 
many  being  lost  by  abuse  and  hardship,  and  more  stolen  by  the  Blackfeet,  Crows, 
Youtas,  Snakes,  and  other  tribes.  It  was  not  uncommon  that  a  single  Indian  owned 
a  hundred  or  more  of  them. 

This  valley  is  capable  of  producing  large  quantities  of  hides,  tallow,  beef,  and  wool. 
It  has  all  the  advantages  of  California  for  grazing,  without  its  defects  :  droughts  do  not 
occur  to  injure  it  for  this  purpose.  The  slopes  of  the  mountains  or  the  bottom  of  the 
valleys  are  a  green  pasture  at  all  seasons.  The  winters  are  cold  enough  to  salt  meats, 
which  is  not  the  case  in  California.  This  valley  is  pre-eminent  for  its  pastoral 
advantages. 

Its  agricultural  facilities  are  not  so  great :  still,  some  of  the  bottoms  of  the  rivers 
are  good  soil,  and  the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains  generally  so ;  in  both,  irrigation 
could  be  easily  applied,  and  the  agricultural  wants  of  a  pastoral  people  abundantly 
supplied. 

No  country  affords  better  streams  for  manufacturing  purposes.      The  waters  are 


HISTORY,   AND   GOVERNMENT.  223 

very  equal,  being  supplied,  in  the  cold  season,  by  the  rains  and  melting  snows  of  the 
lower  parts,  and  in  the  warm  season  by  that  of  the  mountains. 

The  routes  of  this  country  are  not  deficient,  and  a  point  below  the  Great  Dalles 
may  be  easily  reached,  where  there  is  a  fine  and  deep  river  to  the  Cascades,  where  is 
a  portage  of  about  two  miles,  which  might  be  improved,  and  from  that  to  the  sea  is 
good  navigation. 

This  region  may  be  called  perfectly  healthy.  In  it  the  epidemic  fever,  which  broke 
out  on  the  lower  Columbia,  in  1829,  and  continued  its  ravages  until  1836,  and  nearly 
exterminated  the  native  races  there,  has  not  been  known,  except  in  cases  of  persons 
who  had  been  previously  in  the  infected  region.  These  sometimes  suffered  from  it, 
but  none  others. 


LETTER  XII. 

June  2d,  1848. 
SIR:  "*V 

I  now  send  you  a  few  remarks  on  the  route  to  Oregon,  and  the  improvements 
of  the  Indians. 

I  have  confined  myself  to  their  physical  condition,  which  I  consider  preliminary  to 
moral  or  natural  development  in  most  cases,  and  more  particularly  among  a  people 
who  are  starving  for  food,  and  freezing  for  want  of  clothes  and  shelter,  at  least  half 
the  year. 


LETTER  XIII. 

June  2d,  1848. 
SIR: 

A  line  of  communication  across  the  continent,  and  the  improvement  of  the 
condition  of  the  Indians  through  whose  countries  it  may  pass,  involves  the  considera 
tion  of  several  important  facts. 

1st.  The  policy  of  this  government,  which  has  had  the  effect  to  concentrate  the 
Indians  toward  the  Kocky  Mountains,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  route. 

2d.  That  the  increased  number  of  the  Indians  is  fast  destroying  the  game  on  which 
they  mainly  subsist. 

3d.  That  the  stream  of  white  population  passing  through  these  countries,  and 
more  particularly  the  introduction  of  the  Kobe  Trade,  is  rapidly  hastening  the 
decrease  of  the  game. 

4th.  That,  notwithstanding  the  Indians  east  of  the  mountains  have  a  country  well 
fitted  for  agriculture,  yet  they  have  never  depended  much  on  it,  for  their  subsistence, 
and  appear  unfitted  for  its  steady  labors.  This  renders  it  wholly  improbable  that 
those  west  of  the  mountains,  with  a  soil  and  climate  generally  unfitted  for  agriculture, 
and  who  have  never  planted  a  seed,  will  ever  devote  themselves  to  its  pursuit. 


2i>4  TRIBAL   ORGANIZATION, 

5th.  In  the  natural  progress  of  the  improvement  of  man,  the  pastoral  condition  is 
the  second  stage,  and  succeeds  that  of  the  hunter. 

6th.  That  some  of  the  Indians,  in  the  region  under  consideration,  have  already 
reached  this  second  condition,  having  introduced  and  reared  horses,  and  more  recently 
by  obtaining  cattle,  and  appear  well  disposed  to  commence  such  pursuits. 

7th.  That  peace  cannot  be  maintained  among  numerous  and  various  tribes  of 
Indians,  unless  means  of  subsistence  can  be  provided  to  prevent  the  necessity  of  one 
preying  on  another,  and  all,  on  our  citizens,  who  may  be  located  in  those  regions,  or 
on  their  way  through  them. 

The  following  remarks  should  be  confined  to  the  countries  I  have  heretofore  partially 
described,  viz.,  from  the  summit  of  the  South  Pass  by  the  Colorado,  Bear,  Snake,  and 
Columbia  Rivers  to  the  Great  Dalles,  being  the  route  through  which  our  communica 
tions  will  be  made  with  the  settlements  in  Oregon,  and  by  which  the  great  mass  of 
emigration  to  that  region  must  pass. 

This  country  is  essentially  different  from  any  which  this  government  has  heretofore 
controlled,  but  is  of  the  same  character  as  the  great  mass  of  that  which  is  soon  to  be 
placed  under  its  protection.  It  resembles  the  interior  of  Asia.  None  of  the  roving 
tribes  who  infest  it  claim  the  ownership  of  its  soil ;  they  visit  it  only  to  hunt  game, 
and  murder  and  plunder  those  they  meet,  if  they  are  strong  or  cunning  enough  to  do 
so.  The  different  bands  of  Shoshonees  are  its  true  inhabitants,  except  below  the  Blue 
Mountains,  where  the  Cayouses  and  Walla-Wallahs  dwell.  These  Indians  plant 
nothing,  and  live  only  by  the  indigenous  productions,  on  fish,  game,  and  roots.  I  do 
not  know  that  they  ever  claimed  the  ownership  of  the  soil  in  a  single  instance. 

The  treaty  system,  which  has  been  pursued,  as  regards  the  Indians  and  their  lands, 
this  side  of  the  mountains,  appears  to  me  inapplicable  to  this  region.  First,  Because, 
in  a  large  portion  of  the  country,  there  is  no  resident  Indian  government  with  whom 
to  treat.  Government  has  not  been  introduced  among  them  to  a  sufficient  extent  for 
this  purpose.  They  exist  in  small  -detached  bodies  and  single  families,  and  change 
their  locations  so  widely  that  they  seem  to  have  no  particular  claim  to  any  portion. 
Second,  There  is  no  distinct  property  to  be  treated  for,  as  no  considerable  body  of 
these  Indians,  except  between  the  Cascade  and  Blue  Mountains,  can  be  found  whose 
lines  of  wandering  have  not  continually  interlocked  with  those  of  similar  bands. 
Third,  If  there  were  distinct  ideas  of  ownership  in  the  soil,  the  case  would  still  be  the 
same,  as  an  immense  proportion  of  it  would  be  entirely  valueless,  if  distributed  in  dis 
tinct  properties.  It  is  only  valuable  as  a  commonalty,  and  for  grazing  purposes, 
except  in  locations  which  are  of  very  limited  extent. 

I  coincide  with  the  opinion,  so  often  expressed  by  those  best  acquainted  with  this 
region,  that  posts  should  be  established  at  suitable  points  on  the  route  through  it ;  but 
I  would  not  confine  the  use  of  them  to  the  protection  and  aid  of  emigrants,  but  extend 
it  to  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  Indians,  together  with  fostering  a  white 


HISTORY,   AND   GOVERNMENT.  225 

pastoral  population.  For  which  purpose  I  would  propose  the  establishment  of  posts, 
say  one  each,  at  the  "  Red  Butes"  of  the  Platte ;  the  mouth  of  the  "  Sandy,"  on  Green 
River ;  at  "  Bear  River,"  near  the  Soda  Springs ;  in  the  valley  of  "  Fort  Hall ;"  in  the 
valley  of  "  Bruneau ;"  in  the  valley  of  "  Powder  River,"  near  the  Lone  Pine ;  at  the 
mouth  of  the  "  Umatullah,"  about  fifteen  miles  below  Walla- Wallah ;  and  at  the 
"  Great  Dalles"  of  the  Columbia.  These  points  are  about  seven  camps  distant  from 
each  other,  for  packed  animals,  except  that  Bear  River  is  five  camps  from  Sandy,  and 
two  from  Fort  Hall ;  and  they  are  all  on  the  immediate  line  of  the  Oregon  trail,  within 
that  which  passes  north,  if  Snake  River  bend  is  followed,  or  that  which  passes  on  the 
south. 

These  posts  should  have  a  military  force  appointed  to  each,  of  from  20  to  100  men. 
The  two  nearest  the  south  Pass  should  be  more  strongly  garrisoned  than  the  inter 
mediate  ones  between  them  and  those  on  the  Columbia,  where  the  Indians  are  more 
effectively  organized.  A  disposable  force  would  also  be  required,  of  perhaps  100  men, 
to  support  any  point  which  might  require  it.  and  supply  convoys  and  expresses,  &c. 
These  posts  should  also  have  a  sufficient  number  of  white  laborers  for  the  operations 
of  agriculture,  for  their  subsistence,  and  to  superintend  the  herding  of  animals,  but  the 
main  body  of  the  herdsmen  should  be  selected,  in  preference,  from  the  Indians. 
Horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  whichever  might  suit  the  particular  location,  should 
also  be  provided  for  these  establishments,  taking  care  to  select  good  breeds. 

All  these  posts  would  produce  wheat  and  many  other  articles  required  for  their 
support,  except,  perhaps,  those  of  Sandy  and  the  Red  Butes,  where  it  would  be 
uncertain. 

These  positions  might  probably  be  kept  up  with  a  less  force  than  stated  above,  but 
as  the  game  decreases  rapidly,  and  in  most  of  this  region  is  now  nearly  extinct,  the 
Indians  may  become  more  troublesome ;  besides,  it  is  always  best  to  show  them  an 
imposing  force  in  the  beginning.  It  will  probably  be  some  time  before  the  Indians 
will  be  induced  to  respect  property  from  any  motive  but  fear ;  eventually,  the  fact  of 
possessing  it  themselves  may  furnish  another  motive. 

Indians  should  be  employed  for  all  services  which  they  can  be  induced  to  perform ; 
particularly  such  as  are  required  in  managing  the  animals  which  may  be  reared,  and 
their  services  paid  in  cattle  and  clothing,  with  a  view  to  induce  them  to  become 
owners  of  herds. 

Such  portions  of  the  country  as  may  appear  fitted  for  agriculture,  should  be  reserved 
to  the  government ;  and  of  the  lands  so  reserved,  an  allotment  should  be  made  to 
every  Indian  inhabitant  of  the  country,  and  the  remainder,  except  such  as  might  be 
reserved  for  the  use  of  the  government  posts,  opened  for  sale  to  whites  or  Indians  who 
might  choose  to  purchase.  The  remainder  of  the  country  should  be  thrown  open 
for  one  vast  grazing-field,  to  be  used  by  all  who  might  own  stock. 

The  posts  just  established  should  at  first  attend  to  the  rearing  of  stock ;  but  subse- 
29 


226  TRIBAL   ORGANIZATION, 

quently,  when  a  sufficient  number  of  animals  have  been  transferred  to  private  indi 
viduals,  either  Indian  or  white,  it  might  be  relinquished  to  their  enterprise. 

At  first  the  expenses  of  these  establishments  might  be  considerable ;  but  in  the  end 
this  would  be  fully  compensated  by  the  advantages  gained.  A  tax  per  head  might 
be  laid  on  the  animals  grazed  on  the  common  lands,  as  a  condition  of  the  use  of  them 
for  that  purpose,  and  also  on  the  allotments  of  agricultural  lands ;  and  from  these 
services,  in  a  few  years  the  revenue  would  nearly  or  quite  equal  the  expenditure. 

The  lands  being  in  common,  cattle  intended  for  export  from  the  country  might  be 
grazed  slowly,  at  a  proper  season,  down  to  the  Great  Dalles ;  whence  the  transporta 
tion  would  be  a  slight  charge. 

I  am  fully  impressed  with  the  belief  that  these  Indians  must  become  extinct  under 
the  operation  of  existing  causes,  and  that  some  system  should  be  adopted  for  their 
improvement  which  will  supply  their  physical  wants,  and  develop  such  elements  of 
wealth  as  may  exist  in  these  remote  regions,  both  for  the  benefit  of  their  race  and  our 
own.  I  have  no  doubt  that  some  well-devised  system  to  carry  out  the  leading  ideas 
above  expressed,  would  in  time  accomplish  both ;  but  should  it  fail,  as  all  other  plans 
have,  to  improve  the  Indian  race,  it  would  certainly  enure  to  the  advantage  of  our 
own,  by  rendering  productive  in  pastoral  wealth  regions  which  otherwise  will  remain 
a  waste. 

LETTER  XIV. 

June  6th,  1848. 
SIR: 

Your  favor  of  2d  instant  was  received  yesterday.  I  do  not  precisely  under 
stand  whether  you  seek  the  Indian  name  of  the  Bear  River,  or  that  of  the  Snake 
River.  The  latter  is  called  by  the  N6zperces  "Saaptin,"  and  by  the  Shoshonees 
"  Paah,"  and  the  tribal  name  of  the  Ne"zperces  was,  I  believe,  Saaptin.  Among  them 
the  Bear  is  called  Hohost,  and  lower  down  on  the  Columbia  it  is  Khoot.  Lewis  and 
Clark's  Narrative  mentions  a  chief  named  "  Hohostilpilp,"  which  means  red  or  brown 
bear,  and  should  be  divided  thus — Hohost-ilp-ilp ;  and  the  Koos  Kooshe,  on  which  he 
was  found,  is  a  compound  of  the  word  koots,  or  little,  and  coose,  or  horse — little  horse, 
which  is  the  name  for  the  dog.  The  Nezperce  whom  I  brought  to  Boston  in  1833, 
called  my  cat  by  the  same  name  also.  Also  by  the  Saaptins  all  the  colors  are  denoted 
by  double  words,  as  "  hi-hi,"  white,  "  ilp-ilp,"  red  or  brown,  "  snioux-snioux,"  black. 

With  the  resident  Shoshonees  of  Bear  River  of  Salt  Lake,  I  had  no  verbal  inter 
course.  In  1833,  when  I  saw  them,  they  always  fled  to  the  inaccessible  mountains. 

"Without  having  any  evidence  of  the  fact,  I  suppose  the  name  of  the  river  was  given 
by  the  whites.  At  one  time  it  was  called  White  River.  In  the  same  manner  the 
trappers  have  named  branches  of  Grand- River  "Little  Snake"  and  "Little  Bear  River," 
and  some  used  the  word  South  instead  of  Little,  while  the  Shoshonee  name  of  the 
latter  was  "  Yampah." 


HISTORY,   AND    GOVERNMENT.  227 

The  great  number  of  bears  which  formerly  harbored  in  the  deep  volcanic  chasms 
of  the  mountains,  near  the  Soda  Springs,  might  have  induced  either  whites  or  Indians 
to  confer  this  name  on  the  river. 

I  might,  if  desirable,  give  you  a  very  few  N6"zperce  and  Flathead,  or  Spokan  words, 
and  more  that  were  used  on  and  near  the  Wallamette;  but  I  suppose  there  is  now 
much  better  means  of  obtaining  a  vocabulary  of  the  latter. 

LETTER  XV. 

August  14th,  1848. 
SIR: 

Your  favor  of  29th  ultimo  was  received  on  the  1st  instant.  Unavoidable 
engagements  have  prevented  answering  it  until  now. 

I  have  no  memorandum  of  the  statistics  of  the  Snakes,  Bonacks,  and  Shoshonees, 
although  one  was  kept  at  Fort  Hall  of  the  Indians  who  visited  that  establishment,  up 
to  the  time  it  was  sold' to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  in  1837;  but  such  estimates 
are  of  little  value,  owing  to  the  inaccuracies  arising  from  the  very  roving  character  of 
the  Indians  of  that  region,  and  the  difficulty  of  identifying  them  when  they  return, 
after  long  intervals  of  time. 

The  Green  River  Snakes  have  a  country  well  stored  with  buffalo,  and  consequently 
good  food,  clothes,  and  lodges.  They  appeared  to  be  thriving  Indians  in  1836,  but  I 
do  not  suppose  they  were  on  the  increase.  Probably  they  had  been  stationary  in 
numbers  for  a  long  period ;  and  the  same  observation,  I  think,  may  be  applied  to  all 
the  Indians  on  both  sides  of  the  mountains,  who  have  access  to  the  Buffalo  regions. 
I  suppose  that  all  such  Indians  have  been  prevented  from  increasing  by  continual 
encounters,  arising  from  horse-stealing  and  other  predatory  habits  incident  to  hunting- 
grounds,  which  are  used  as  a  commonalty  among  several  tribes,  combined  with  the 
natural  desire  of  each  to  monopolize  the  whole. 

The  natural  effect  produced  by  a  state  of  warfare  would  be  to  compel  them  to  visit 
the  hunting  grounds  for  limited  periods,  and  in  large  parties,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
meat  and  skins,  retiring,  when  that  was  accomplished,  to  residences  more  secure  for 
themselves  and  property,  thereby  allowing  the  buffalo  some  respite.  It  has  been 
noticed  that  all  buffalo  countries  are  the  war-grounds  of  several  tribes.  Before  the 
inroads  of  the  Whites  to  these  regions,  a  long-continued  peace  among  the  Indians, 
allowing  them  to  hunt  continuously,  and  in  small  parties,  would  have  increased  their 
numbers;  but  if  long  continued  would  have  extirpated  the  game,  and,  in  the  end, 
compelled  the  Indians  to  choose  between  the  labors  of  herding  domesticated  animals 
and  agriculture,  to  sustain  the  increased  number,  or  a  resort  to  war  to  reproduce  au 
equilibrium  with  the  means  of  sustenance.  The  latter  resort  is  more  in  accordance 
with  the  Indian  mind,  in  its  past  and  present  state. 

From  such  considerations,  my  own  opinion  is,  that  these  Indians  have  been,  as 


228  TRIBAL   ORGANIZATION,  ETC. 

regards  numbers,  for  a  long  time  weighed  in  a  balance,  the  means  of  subsistence  some 
times  preponderating,  and  increasing  their  numbers,  and  this  decreasing  the  game, 
which  would  again  produce  depopulating  contests,  which  would  again  allow  the  game 
to  increase. 

"When  the  Whites  began  to  visit  these  regions,  the  destruction  of  the  game  became 
inevitable,  and  that  of  the  Indians  will  surely  follow,  if  the  power  of  the  government 
is  not  exerted  to  substitute  some  means  of  obtaining  food  which  is  available,  without 
a  violent  or  sudden  departure  from  their  established  habits  and  natural  character. 

No  success  has  attended  the  effort  to  bring  the  natives  of  this  continent  to  the  level 
of  our  race ;  but  it  is  incumbent  on  us  to  continue  it  in  good  faith,  and  I  am  fully 
impressed  with  the  belief  that  it  might  be  accomplished  through  the  introduction  of 
the  means  and  habits  of  pastoral  pursuits,  as  an  intermediate  step  to  agriculture,  and 
I  believe  the  experiment  would  not  cost,  in  dollars,  as  much  as  that  of  keeping  Indians 
quiet,  who  have  been  crowded  into  countries  nearly  destitute  of  game,  while  they  are 
still  inadequate  to  the  labors  of  agriculture. 

The  Bonacks  and  Shoshonees,  I  have  no  doubt,  were  decreasing  when  I  was  in 
their  country,  and  I  do  not  believe  they  were  ever  very  numerous :  the  country  is  too 
poor,  in  all  respects,  to  admit  of  increase. 

I  can  without  any  reserve  state,  that  the  Indians  between  the  Eocky  and  Blue 
Mountains,  and. from  49°  to  53°  north  latitude,  which  includes  the  range  of  these 
two  tribes,  and  many  more,  were  never  demoralized  previous  to  1837,  by  the  introduc 
tion  of  alcohol.  I  was  in  the  trade  myself  and  conversant  with  the  parties  who 
visited  that  region,  and  the  management  of  all  the  posts  in  it,  for  the  five  preceding 
years.  Spirits  were  never  traded  with  them ;  rarely,  a  good  hunter  or  chief  was 
presented  with  a  glass  on  his  arrival.  And  the  whole  quantity  introduced  in  a  year 
would  not  have  supplied  the  value  of  a  week's  fertility  in  a  year  to  the  white  persons 
in  the  country.  It  was  far  too  expensive,  owing  to  long  transportation  on  packed 
animals,  which  was  the  only  means  of  conveyance,  to  be  brought  in  considerable 
quantities. 

The  introduction  of  alcohol  among  Indians  may  have  influenced  their  condition 
elsewhere,  and  would  probably  do  so  in  the  countries  referred  to,  but  when  I  left 
those  regions,  their  products  were  so  inconsiderable  in  value,  as  to  interpose  a  complete 
protection  from  its  introduction  or  use. 

I  am,  very  respectfully, 

Your  Obedient  Servant, 

NATHANIEL  J.  WYETH. 
HENRY  B.  SCHOOLCRAPT,  ESQ. 


